Plant Transpiration Lab

Describe the process of transpiration in vascular plants:

Some of the water absorbed by a plant's roots is used for photosynthesis, but much is lost to the environment through the process called transpiration. During photosynthesis, tiny pores on the surface of the leaves, called stomata, open to permit the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen. Because the stomata must remain open for the exchange of gases, large amounts of water are lost to the environment through evaporation. During transpiration, water that evaporates from the leaves is continually replaced with water that is absorbed through the roots.

Controls: The amount of time set, and testing the plant with no lamp or heater or fan.

What environmental factors that you tested increased the rate of transpiration? Was the rate of transpiration increased for all plants tested?:
Almost every single environmental factor increased the rate of transpiration, except the lamp for the weeping fig, and zebra plant.


Did any of the environmental factors (heat, light, or wind) increase the transpiration rate more than the others? Why?
The fan increased it the most. Wind will increase the transpiration and water loss through the leaves of the plant. It gives the water molecules a kick start for evaporation.

Which species of plants that you tested had the highest transpiration rates? Why do you think different species of plants transpire at different rates?:
The rubber plant had the highest transpiration rate. It depends on where they are geographically (soil), and how big they are.


Suppose you coated the leaves of a plant with petroleum jelly. How would the plant's rate of transpiration be affected?:
The jelly would would block the water from evaporating. It would definitely slow down the transpiration rate.

Of what value to a plant is the ability to lose water through transpiration?

Transpiration causes water to be pulled up from the roots to the leaves, and minerals accompany the water to the leaf. Transpiration also helps with photosynthesis and cooling the leaf down. 

5/8 Plant Hormones

1. Auxins
Produced in the stamp tip that promotes cell elongation. Auxin moves to the darker side of the plant, causing the cells there to grow larger than the cells on the lighter side. This makes the plant curve towards the light, a plant movement called phototropism.

2. Abscisic Acid
Plays a role in how plants respond to weather stresses, like cold and drought. It slows seed germination. When this acid lowers in the plant, the hormone can no longer prevent germination, and the seeds sprout. But sometimes the plant would be better off if they were delayed. It depends on how the plant would be effected by its outside environment.

3. Ethylene
Stimulates root growth, flower opening, fruit ripening
Most frequently used to ripen fruit that is harvested green and shipped to the consumer. Ripening fruit produces ethylene, and one ripe fruit can trigger the ripening of a whole basket of fruit.

Lab- Predator-Prey Simulation: Population Growth

In the beginning of the experiment, one wolf could barely catch one rabbit out of the three on the board. The wolf was not big enough to catch all three of them and we had to keep multiplying the rabbits in order for the wolf to survive. As shown on the graph, when a wolf does not catch the rest of the rabbits, the rabbits multiply (that is why the rabbits number goes up very high). Once there was enough wolves, they were able to land on most of the rabbits. In the end, the wolves caught all the rabbits. When the rabbits were eaten, all the wolves in the next generation died because they had no food. So, the wolves depend on the rabbits in order to survive. Without the wolves, the rabbit population would skyrocket.

Biome Travel Blog: Oil Spill

Spilled oil can harm the organisms in the ocean because it is poisonous. When oil is released into water, it spreads into a thin layer and floats on the surface. Ocean currents move the oil around any way depending on the current. Once the oil moves, it kills plants and animals in the environment. Wind, like ocean currents, also moves the oil around. The oil can break up into different sections and go in opposite directions, either on the shore or out to sea. The creatures most affected by the oil are animals near the surface of the water (epipelagic zone). Animals that become coated in or ingest oil often die quickly.
Because the oil is spread out on the surface, sunlight is blocked from the organisms. Cyanobacteria and phytoplankton would most likely be effected by this natural disaster because they use the sun to go through photosynthesis. They would die because they do not have sunlight for the process.
Oil can affect the temperature of the ocean. The oil can form in tar balls and mats (oil compacted). The tar absorbs the sunlight which makes the temperature rise.
Fish and shellfish can be exposed if the oil is mixed up into their water column. Adult fish may experience reduced growth, enlarged livers, change in respiration rates. and reproduction impairment.
It is also possible for the oil to stick and clump with floating particles on its way to the deep sea. If it is not broken down by bacteria, then species could be effected by it.
Some fish have ways to get rid of the dangerous oil molecules (PAHs). Exposed fish will clear PAHs out of their muscles and organs. Because the oil is not in the fish's tissues, the oil does not pass up the food chain. Oysters, and mussels don't have this enzyme system so they can pass them on to their predators.

Biome Travel Blog: Marine Pelagic

The Marine Pelagic Biome is a vast realm of open water. The oceans cover 70% of the earth's surface. This biome covers 3,500 feet below the sea surface. The most obvious difference for organisms living in the sea is that the oceans are wet. In water sound travels faster than in air. Sand covers the ocean floor. Marine organisms have to deal with extreme pressure when they go to great depths. When the pressure gets higher, the biodiversity is lower because there is limited food, the temperature drops and there is less light. Marine organisms are faced with a challenge as they swim through different areas to deal with differing levels of salinity in the water. The ocean also is always moving with its constant currents and surface winds. 

Abiotic and Biotic Interactions: Sunlight affects the amount of algae growth. Plants underwater take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen.

There are 5 different zones to the Marine Pelagic Biome:

Epipelagic Zone (First 500 ft below the surface)- Sunlight Zone

This zone has only cyanobacteria and phytoplankton in it. It receives enough light for the tiny organisms to go through photosynthesis. At night, zooplankton rise toward the surface to feed on algae and bacteria. Most predators, both invertebrate (copepods) and vertebrate (fish) feed at night. The carnivores hunt by sight, so because of natural selection, zooplankton are transparent. Fish that come up to eat are dark on top and light on their bellies so predators don't come up and eat them. Many marine animals come up here, from plankton to great blue whales. 

Blue Marlin Photo by Tony Arruza/Corbis

Mesopelagic Zone (660-3,300 ft)- Twilight Zone

The temperature varies from 68 F- 39 F based on what part of the world you are at. This zone is known as the twilight zone because it does not have enough sunlight for photosynthesis. Fish in this zone have light producing organs and gas filled bladders to help them control buoyancy. Predators have upward-oriented eyes and mouths. Examples of animals in this zone: swordfish, squid, eels, cuttlefish

Cuttlefish Photo by Wolcott Henry

Bathypelagic Zone (3,000-8,000 ft)- Midnight Zone 

The average temperature is 39 F. This zone has the highest diversity of organisms. Fish here are black and have an antennae to help with buoyancy. Bioluminescence is important for species and gender recognition, luring prey, and confusing predators. There are no plants because there is no sunlight. 

Organisms in this zone: Viperfish, frill shark, squid, whales, octopus

Sponges, brachiopods, sea star

Octopus Photo by Espen Rekdal

Abyssopelagic Zone (13,123 to 19,685 ft)- Bottomless Abyss

This area has immense pressure and constant cold (35-37 F) Animals here are able to withstand the pressure (black swallower, deep-sea anglerfish and the giant squid) Some of these creatures have underslung jaws to sift through the sand to catch food. 

Deep Sea Anglerfish from Disney's Pixar "Finding Nemo"

Hadopelagic Zone (20,000 ft to the bottom of the ocean)- Hades/Greek Underworld

This zone has low population and low diversity of marine life. The most common organisms here: jellyfish, viperfish, tube worms, and sea cucumbers. 

Viperfish Photo by Danté Fenolio

These zones all work together because the animals eat the other animals in the zone above them. It is a circle of life. 

Producers: Phytoplankton and aquatic plants (seaweed and algae)- Every species in the marine biome need organic carbon to survive and these tiny organisms produce it. Phytoplankton make their own energy by using photosynthesis. 

Consumers: 

Herbivores- Zooplankton- eat the phytoplankton and invertebrates (like sea urchins) and other fish eat seaweed. 

Carnivores- Small carnivores (like sardines) eat herbivores (like zooplankton), but serve as a meal for bigger animals; Top predators (like sharks, tuna, seals and birds) eat the small carnivores.

Decomposers: Hagfish, worms, fungi and bacteria

Human Influence: We eat fish. 

Isopod Behavior: Response to Pebbles

Introduction
Question: When placed in an environment with two different chambers, do isopods respond more to a chamber with pebbles, or a chamber with no pebbles?
Background: Behavior means how something or someone acts in a specific situation. In this lab, I work with isopods, also known as roly-polies. These organisms respire through gills. I experiment with the isopods and see how they react and how their behaviors change in different types of environments. Here are some basic terms that are critical when learning the behavior of animals:
Proximate cause (the "how") is closest to being the cause for a result. It is the immediate trigger for a type of behavior. It focuses on the environment that stimulates the cause. An example of a proximate question about birdsong: How does it know when it is the right time to sing? Ultimate cause (the "why") is what is believed to be the real cause. Ultimate cause has something to do with the big picture, like evolution. An example of an ultimate question: Why does the bird sing? Fixed action patterns is an animal's instinct. It is a sequence of behaviors that an animal carries out every time; no matter what. An example: A mother goose lays eggs in a nest. If an egg rolls out of the nest, the goose will move her beak in a specific way to push the egg back into the nest. If the egg is completely removed from the nest, the goose will still move her beak trying to push nothing into the nest. Imprinting is a process where a young animal follows the actions/characteristics of its parent. A proximate cause for imprinting in young geese: The young geese see their mother leaving and calling them. An ultimate cause: The mother takes care of the geese and teaches it basic skills, so geese that do imprint have a better chance of survival. Taxis is a specific, and directed motion in response to a stimulus. For an example, if you leave a plant near a window during the summer, it will grow towards the window/towards the light. It directly goes to the light. Kinesis a random, undirected motion in response to a stimulus. For an example, when lights go on in a room, cockroaches scatter every which way, in no direct area. They are responding to the stimulus (the light) in a random way. Classical conditioning is an involuntary response to a stimulus. For an example, when kids hear the ice-cream truck, they get excited because they love to eat ice-cream. So the stimulus is the music from the ice-cream truck and the response is the happiness. Operant conditioning is a voluntary behavior based on the consequences. For an example, you kick a ball. The ball bounces off a wall and hits you in the face. Now, you pay more attention when you are kicking balls. Isopods are crustaceans, so they are related to crabs, crayfish, and shrimp. All these creatures, including isopods have gills and need water to breathe. Because isopods live on the land, they need moisture to live. When I put 6 isopods in a dry chamber, and 6 isopods in a moist chamber, most of the isopods would travel to the moist chamber. So there is only one independent variable, in my experiment I make both of the chambers moist. It will show how the isopods only respond to the pebbles.

Hypothesis: If isopods are placed in a rock/no rock choice chamber and are allowed to move freely for four minutes, then they will move towards the rocky chamber because they live in environments where there is dirt and rocks.

The independent variable are the rocks, and the dependent are the amount of isopods in the chamber with the rocks.

Materials:
Isopods
Two chamber box
Pebbles
Water
Circle place cards for chambers
Timer

Procedure:
1) Place two moist circle cards into each chamber, and pebbles on one side of the chamber.
2) Place 6 isopods into one chamber, and 6 isopods into the other.
3) Count how many isopods are on each side of the choice chamber every 30 seconds for 4 minutes.
4) Record the data on a table.

Results:

Conclusion: Based on my findings and the graph, as time went on, most of the isopods made their way to the chamber with the pebbles. You can see that the amount of isopods in Chamber 2 went all the way down to only one, and the line of Chamber 1 went up. My hypothesis was correct, that if isopods are placed in a rock/no rock choice chamber and are allowed to move freely for four minutes, then they will move towards the rocky chamber because they live in environments where there is dirt and rocks. Isopods are usually found under rocks, logs and leaves. They hide from the sunlight. I noted one specific isopod who actually went under the pebbles in the chamber. The isopods instinctively go to the pebbles because that is what they are used to. They need dirt and rocks in order to survive and feel safe.

Immune System Quiz

Provides an immediate nonspecific immune response

    The innate immune system is a nonspecific immune response. This response will attack anything it comes in contact with. Skin is part of the innate immune system. It gives the body a physical barrier, but also has cells of the immune system throughout the layers of the skin. When you are sick, your mucus becomes thicker because the pH changes from rise in temperature. Mucus contains immunoglobulins, which are proteins that act as antibodies. Your body coughs to clear out the lungs of any pathogens. We sneeze to rid the sinus passages of bacteria and germs. Watery eyes clean the soft tissue of the eyes. We get a fever when we are sick to make the body less habitable for organisms and we go potty to rid the intestines of unwanted organisms. 

Activates T and B cells in response to an infection

Responds to a later exposure to the same infectious agent

    The lymphatic system feeds cells into the body, filters out dead cells and invades organisms like bacteria. There are two main types of lymphatic cells, T and B cells. These cells have receptors on them that recognize foreign invaders. Each receptor can only match a specific antigen/foreign invader. Because it is tricky to only be able to pick up a specific antigen, the body makes several different types of lymphocyte cells enabling it to recognize almost all invaders. 

    There are two different types of T cells: helper cells and killer cells. Helper T cells activate B cells and killer T cells. The helper T cells also need to be activated. It is activated when a macrophage (white blood cell) eats an invader and goes to a lymph node (where lymphocytes are formed) and presents information about the eaten invader. The macrophage displays an antigen fragment from the invader (called antigen presentation), and the receptor of the helper T cell recognizes the antigen. The T cell is then activated. After that, the helper T cells starts to divide and produce proteins that activate B and T cells.

    

The B cell goes around and tries to find an antigen that matches up with its receptor. Once it finds it, the B cell’s signal goes off. A Helper T cell then gives the B cell the protein it needs to become activated. Once activated, the B cell produces plasma cells and B memory cells. The plasma cell produces a protein called an antibody which responds to the antigen that matched the B cell’s receptor. Antibodies are released from plasma cells and go out and help destroy invaders.

The killer T cell attacks cells of the body that are infected by bacteria and viruses. The killer T cell’s receptor searches each cell it passes by. Once it finds an infected cell, it is immediately destroyed. 

The memory cells remember different types of intruders. Once an intruder comes into the body for the second time, B and T memory cells will remember the virus and activate the immune system faster than before. 

Distinguishes self from non self
The antigens in the immune systems have receptors that detect specific types of viruses or bacteria. Each receptor can only match a specific antigen/foreign invader. Because it is tricky to only be able to pick up a specific antigen, the body makes several different types of lymphocyte cells enabling it to recognize almost all invaders. 

http://kessingersblog.blogspot.com/2010/04/why-do-we-cough-sneeze-and-experience.html

http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/skin_hair/skin_immune_system_003741.htm

http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/immunity/immune-detail.html

http://maureensie.info/healthy-body/57-mucus-and-the-immune-system.html

ACTH Hormone Podcast

Here is the podcast!

My hormone is called ACTH, also known as corticotropin. It is produced in the anterior pituitary gland, which is a major organ of the endocrine system. The endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce hormones directly into the circulatory system. ACTH is a component of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis, also known as the HPA Axis. It is a set of three endocrine glands: the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland (which ACTH is apart of) and the adrenal. The HPA axis controls reactions to stress and regulates different body processes like digestion, the immune system, and emotions. ACTH is apart of a negative feedback loop. It is produced in response to stress. When someone is in a very stressful situation, impulses from organs pass to the brain and then to the hypothalamus which is apart of the HPA Axis. The hypothalamus then influences the pituitary gland to create more ACTH. ACTH then stimulates the external layer of the adrenal glands and produces cortisol. ACTH is water soluble and regulates the levels of the hormone cortisol. High cortisol levels can be an indication of Cushing’s disease which is caused by a tumor in the pituitary gland. Someone with high cortisol levels has high blood pressure. People with low cortisol levels could have Addison’s disease, where the pituitary gland is unable to produce enough hormones. Low cortisol levels lead to low blood pressure. MCR is a family of receptors that regulate types of hormones. MCR is the receptor for ACTH, and regulates the entire adrenal. So, ACTH regulates the production of cortisol and is produced in response to stress.

2/19 Unit 7 Test

we had a test on unit 7
swaggie

Cell Respiration Lab: How Honey Effects Yeast

Abstract: In this lab, we will observe the effect of honey on the process of cellular respiration performed by yeast. Sugar influences cell respiration greatly. Yeast can convert sucrose into glucose and use it during respiration. The most sugar in the test tube will create the greatest concentration of CO2 gas from respiration.

Introduction/Background

In this lab, we experiment with yeast. Yeast is a type of fungus that relies on sugar to provide it with energy so it can grow. Like bacteria, yeast can grow in or on their food source. Once they absorb the sugar, they can break down the molecules into monosaccarides and create ATP (energy). This process is called cellular respiration. Yeast can convert sucrose and fructose into glucose and use it during respiration. The first step of respiration is Glycolysis which occurs in the cytosol. Glucose (6 carbon sugar) is broken down into pyruvate (3 carbon molecule.) The second step is the Krebs cycle that takes place in the mitochondria.This is where the cell generates chemical energy (ATP) from oxidation of pyruvate. The last step is Oxidative phosphorylation which occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This is when large amounts of ATP are released. In cases where there is no oxygen to perform glycolysis, yeast goes through the process of fermentation which makes it possible for ATP to be produced without oxygen. Fermentation regenerates NAD that is needed to take part in glycolysis, allowing it to create more ATP. These processes are necessary for life. Yeast produces carbon dioxide from the break down of glucose. In the lab, we add honey to the yeast. There are 3 monosaccharides that make up honey: fructose, glucose, and sucrose.

Hypothesis: Since honey has sugar in it, if it is added to the yeast, the yeast will convert the sucrose and fructose into glucose during respiration. The most honey in the test tube will create the greatest amount of CO2 gas from respiration.

Materials:

4 tubes

4 CO2 measuring pumps

Yeast

Sucrose

Warm water

Salt

Honey

Timer

Procedure:

1. Set out 4 tubes and each tube add 1g yeast, 1g sucrose, and .1g salt

2. Add warm water to all of the tubes and honey to 3 of the tubes

Tube #1- 35 mL water

Tube #2- 34 mL water, 1 mL honey

Tube #3- 32 mL water, 3 mL honey

Tube #4- 30 mL water, 5 mL honey

3. Cap the tubes and shake them all at the same time

4. After it is dissolved, uncap the tubes and let the tubes sit for 5 minutes.

5. Plug each tube with a CO2 measuring pump. Make sure the pump is set at 2 mL.

6. Every minute, mark where the base of the pump is at.

Results: CO2 Measuring Pump- Recording of each tubes CO2 every minute

Conclusion: Yeast needs glucose to perform cellular respiration. The more glucose there is, the higher energy supply there is for respiration, and the more carbon dioxide produced. So, since honey is mostly made of sugar, the tube that had the most honey (#4 had 5 mL of honey) skyrocketed up the measuring scale. Our control (#1) only had the 1g of sucrose which allowed it to get up to 3.7 mL of CO2. Test tube #2 had 1 mL of honey and went up to 4.2 mL of CO2. Test tube #3 had 3 mL of honey and went up to 5.8 mL of CO2. As you can see, sugar majorly influences the rate of cell respiration in yeast. Our control was tube #1 and the variable was the honey. A potential source of error would be not uncapping the tubes which would not let the yeast get any oxygen to perform glycolysis. 

2/5 Jello Lab!!!!!!!!!!

Jello is made of collagen (protein) which comes from cow and pig bones, hooves and connective tissue. Collagen is all over our body. Manufacturers grind up the parts and treat them with a strong acid/base to break down the cellular structures and release proteins (like collagen) Then it is boiled, and the collagen is partially broke down and the result is gelatin. Collagen gives jello the ability to gel.

Pineapple can be added to the jello desert. Real pineapple contains an enzyme called bromelain.

On the directions for jello, it says not to use fresh pineapple, and instead use canned. We designed an experiment to explain why certain types of pineapple work and why some do not.

Experiment- Canned or fresh pineapple- How the enzyme bromelain effects collagen in jello.

We had three trays of jello.
#1: Regular Jello
#2: Jello with canned pineapple- Does gel
#3: Jello with fresh pineapple- Does not gel


Fresh pineapple contains the enzyme bromelian which can separate amino acids. So, since collagen is a protein, when fresh pineapple is used, the bromelian breaks up the collagen in the jello and does not allow it to set and gel.

Canned pineapple has been heated by manufacturers during the canning process. Once the enzyme, bromelain is heated, it is neutralized (denaturalized) and completely changes it shape forever. It will not be able to fit back into the operon system, and will not work. Bromelain then cannot break up the collagen in Jello and the jello will be able to set and gel.

Forensics Quiz

A twenty-year old man was found supine on Thompson Creak Trail with a bullet would. The entrance of the wound was on the left lateral side 1 cm above the third rib. The exit wound was 5 cm above the belly button in the umbilical region. While tracing the bullet path you notice at the entrance the bullet travels in the frontal plane with a 45-degree downward angle. On inspection of the right side of the rib cage by x-ray you observe the 8th rib fractured. Fragments of the bullets are then traced to the final exit wound. What is the leading differential diagnosis (and why) and what are three plausible alternatives and how would you rule them out.

Leading cause of death: Blood loss
-Went to the 3rd rib on left lateral side where the heart is
Most likely severed arteries causing internal bleeding

Alternatives
1) Shock
Would of happened after the heart was hit

2) Lung puncture
Would of happened after the heart was hit, since it was going at an angle

3) Punctured fluid organs which lead to poisoning
Once again, would have happened after the heart was hit

1/27 Cloning Plants

There are three different ways a plant can clone.

1. Plants clone themselves.

A strawberry plant grows a stem called a runner and a new plant grows from the runner. That new plant is a clone. Similar cloning happens with grass, potatoes, and onions.

2. People clone plants

Vegetative Propagation is simply done by cutting a plant's stem and planting it into the earth. 

3. Scientists clone plants

Scientists use a method called Tissue Culture Propagation where they take pieces of roots and break them up into root cells and put the cells into a nutrient. (Cell Culture- cells are grown under controlled conditions, outside of their natural environment) 

In Culture, the cells become calluses (mass of unorganized cells drives from plant tissue) They are the cells that cover a plant wound.

Specific plant hormones stimulate the cell division which allows the plants that are identical to the original plant to grow. They divide and form different cells like the roots and stems and eventually form a new plant.

Bananas

There are a number of diseases that affect banana plants. Tissue Culture is used to produce bananas the are free from disease. Some plant nurseries have a banana planting area based on tissue culture. 

1/21 Stem Cells/ "Your Inner Healers" Article

There are two different types of stem cells- adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells

Adult stem cells are stem cells after embryonic development and are found in different tissues throughout the body.
They are assigned to a specific tissue and are designed to maintain it.
Their ability to divide is limited.

Embryonic stem cells are at the blastocyst stage. The stem cells are isolated and divide/replicate.
They are able to become any type of cell in the body.

Scientists grow embryonic stem cells. They use a lot of methods and procedures to create them. They have created "recipes" for differentiation: where the embryonic cell is assigned to a important cell in the body (heart, liver, muscle cell)

If scientists can assign the cells to specific cell types, then the cells can treat for disease.

In the article, scientists have found a way to take a adult cell and make it behave like an Embryonic cell. They use manipulations to trick the cell. This process is called cellular reprogramming.

The closest scientists got to that was somatic cell nuclear transfer/cloning where they put an adult cell's DNA into an egg cell.

Extra Credit: Doggies Genotype

Genetics of the colors of the labs:

(B is black, bb is brown)

(ee is yellow)

Yellow= eebb and eeB_

Brown= E_bb

Black= E_B_

Mother= Yellow

Puppies the mother had:

5/12 brown

7/12 black

Mother must be: Bbee

She is yellow so she has ee, and she had black puppies so she must have one B and she had brown puppies so she must have one b.

Father must be: EEbb

If he had Ee or ee, then one of their puppies would have been yellow. Because the puppies are brown and black he must be EE. 

In order to have a brown puppy, he would need a bb. He has a bb because the mother could give a big B and have a puppy that is black. Big B is dominant over little b.