9/30 Quiz and Start Paleo Project

Today we took a quiz on all the different types of variables. 

Controlled: the variable that never changes throughout the entire lab

Independent variable: the variable which you change in an experiment

Dependent variable: the measure of the independent variable. The dependent depends on the independent. 

We also started on our paleo project. Emily and I are creating a transitional fossil based off of the early whale, Pakicetidae (on the right) and the Ambulocetidae (on the bottom).

9/26 Evidence of Evolution Quiz

9/23 Evolution

Theory: observation, law, hypothesis, explanation, inferences (conclusion drawn from evidence)

-expectations

-makes predictions

Hunch: without evidence

Evidence of evolution: natural selection

fossils- layers of time, principle evidence that life has changed over time, puzzle pieces to origin

Example: dog to whale

-evolutionary evidence

9/19 Your Inner Fish with objectives

Unit 2 Objective Sheet:

#3 What type of fossils show very early life on earth:
working assumption- rocks on top are younger, rocks on bottom are older (order of fossils base don the order of rocks)
carbon dating

How a fossil is formed: Rocks preserve fossils (sedimentary rock= gentle)









#12 Homology: shared characteristics that have been inherited from a common ancestor. 

• the more homologies they share, and
• the more similar these homologies are.

Homologous: Structures of similar origins but used for different functions. 
Analogous: Structures of similar function but of different origins. 

Convergent evolution can make interpreting homologies difficult because natural selection favors adaptations in similar environments. 

-favor changes that made the two groups more alike, their phenotypes have changed

9/17 Diffusion and Osmosis Lab

9/12 Quiz

Took a quiz on basic chemistry.. what we have been learning since the first class. 

9/10 Organic Compounds

Organic Compounds

Carbohydrates: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
1) Monosaccharides (CH2O)*
Isomers- molecules with the same chemical formula but with atoms in a different arrangement. 

Example- glucose... (mammals= animal glands) (CH2O)6
fructose... (fruit in plants) structural

2) Disaccharide: when two monosaccharides bond together

Example- Sucrose (sugar) consists of glucose and fructose. They can be broken down by hydrolysis. 

Both monosaccharides and disaccharides are simple sugars which provide the major source of energy to living cells. 

3) Polysaccharide: when more than two monosaccharides bond together
-store energy and form structural tissues 

Lipids: fats/oils
1) Saturated Fatty Acids: carbon atoms bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible

The chain is straight and packed tight! 000000000000

2) Unsaturated: carbon atoms not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible

The additional grouping causes the chain to bend    

Why are lipids important?:

• Storing energy and forming cell membrane
• Supply cells with energy
• Essential fatty acids: human body can't make, must consume in food
• Dietary lipids: fatty acids, trans fat, cholesterol 

Proteins: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur

1) Amino Acids: smaller units of proteins
2) Structure: Amino acids form chains

A protein consists of one or more polypeptide chains

3) Functions

• shape of cells
• majority of muscle tissue
• enzymes speed up chemical reactions in cells
• antibodies destroy foreign substances in body
• carry messages
• bond with other molecules

Nucleic Acids: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

DNA AND RNA

1) Structure: chains made of nucleotides

Nucleotides-
a) base 
b) sugar (ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA
DNA is just missing OH
c) phosphate group

**Sugars and phosphate form backbone of nucleotide chain

STRUCTURAL ISOMER 

GEOMETRIC ISOMER

9/6 Graphing

In this graph, I am showing the molarity of the russet potato. As you can see, I included the title and labeled the percentage and molarity. Where the line hits the x-axis is where the potato is isotonic (equilibrium). The line is going down, so the potato is losing more water. The solute is hypotonic and the potato is hypertonic. 

Hypotonic: a solution which contains more solute than solvent 
Hypertonic: a solution which contains more solvent than solute 

9/3 House Case

We were introduced to a 18 year old who just finished cross country practice with these types of symptoms:

1) Vomit
2) Severe headache
3) Extremely tired
4) Confused 

These are the three diagnoses I came up with:
Dehydration- when body loses water and salts (occurs when you sweat)

Resulting from an electrolyte imbalance: they help regulate fluid balance

-During heavy exercise, electrolytes are lost in sweat (sodium/potassium)

-Electrolyte= compound that ionizes in solvents (water) 

• A common symptom of dehydration headaches are an increase in pain when moving the head - especially during walking*** he was running before 

-If you lose enough water, your blood volume will drop and this will temporarily lead to lower blood and oxygen flow to the brain 

• If dehydration is severe, people may be confused or feel light-headed 

-Brain and other body organs receive less blood

• Vomiting is a natural process when the body is working hard to increase the heart rate trying to make up for the fluids lost.

-The body can hold on to water as much as possible but when the stomach muscles get no water they contract

• Dehydration can cause blood to thicken, forcing the heart to pump harder to carry blood to your cells and organs and resulting in fatigue/tiredness. 

Athletes Overtraining Syndrome- Occurs when you work out a lot without adequate time to rest and recuperate. 

• Dizziness, nausea, and vomiting

-Gastrointestinal distress: ***happens to runners*** delayed emptying of the stomach and small intestines 

-What causes it: As the body attempts to increase the blood supply to the muscles, less blood is supplied to intestines (why?: blood carries oxygen, muscles want oxygen and energy)

• Confusion

-brain receives less blood

• Fatigue

-persistent weariness 

-reduced strength 

• Exercise headaches

Heat Stroke- body temperature is elevated dramatically

• Heat stroke is a risk for athletes who train in hot environmental conditions.

• Symptoms: vomiting, fatigue, weakness, headache, confusion

• Some individuals can develop symptoms of heat stroke suddenly without warning

8/30 Cabbage

What does cabbage have in it that enables it to be a pH indicator?
Red cabbage contains a pigment molecules called flavin.

1. Explain how the chemistry of acid and bases affects the indicator.
Color change occurs over a range of hydrogen ion concentrations.

Weak acids= alkaline
Weak bases= acidic

Acids will donate hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution and have a love pH (pH<7)

Bases accept hydrogen ions and have a high pH (pH>7)

2. Explain how acid rain would affect red cabbage growth and development.
The soil, which controls the pH of the plant, can become too acidic from the acid rain. Most plants grow best when the soil is neutrally or slightly acidic.

8/28 Water

Basic Concepts

Water recycles:
1)water evaporates from Earth's surface
2) Forms clouds
3) Falls back to surface as precipitation

Hydrogen bond- bonds between molecules; help hold water molecules together

Cohesion- water molecules stick together
Adhesion- the joining of two different substances due to attractive force

Density of ice and water:
solid=lower density
liquid=higher density
(Hydrogen bonds make molecules spaced out more when frozen)

Acids and Bases:
acid- higher concentration water, lower pH
base: lower concentration in water, higher pH
_______________________________________________


Insects like water striders can walk not he surface of a pond without breaking the surface: It's tiny mass and geometry of its legs allow it to be supported by surface tension. The legs of the bug have individual spikes on the feet which allow the surface area to spread out evenly among them. Water striders would fall if soap was put in the water because the soap is a surfactant which breaks the force of the H20 bond.  

8/23 Unit 1 Objectives

Distinguishing between quantitative and qualitative: Quantitative is definable by numbers whereas qualitative is using description and senses.

Controlled Experiment:

A controlled experiment is used to compare experimental values. To prove your results are right or not you can check your control specimen. A control is a known result or fact. 

Element: Consists of one atom and cannot be broken down

Compound: Consists of one or more of the same or different atoms and it can be broken down.

Determine the number of neutrons of an element:

You can determine the number of neutrons by subtracting the atomic number (number of protons/electrons) from the mass number.

Biological Applications that use radioactive isotopes:

Radioactive Isotopes are alternate forms of an atom with the same protons but different neutrons.

1) Radiation therapy for cancer

Doctors use targeted x-rays to destroy cancer cells (cobalt)

     A) Radioimmunotherapy

              Inject with isotopes attached where they flow through the bloodstream energy from isotopes targeted     

              straight to cancer 

Why strong covalent bonds and weak bonds are both essential in living organisms:

Strong bonds provide rigid support (like bone structure), and link atoms to form molecules. Weak bonds provide flexibility where they can be broken down and made again easily (DNA). 

Why are water molecules polar?   

         

   

Why are water molecules capable of hydrogen bonding with four neighboring water molecules?

Cohesion and Adhesion:
Cohesion is when the molecules stick together and adhesion is the joining of two different substances due to attractive forces. 

Movement of water form roots to leaves of a tree- 
1) Adhesion is the water sticking to the side walls of trees and moving up the tree
2) Cohesion is responsible for making the water molecules cooperate with each other. 

Class 1: Dancing Milk

In class, we tested the dancing milk experiment with different types of milk and liquids, and also different types of soap. I learned that the food coloring moved the way it did because the dish soap can break up the fat in the milk. The bipolar characteristics weaken the chemical bonds that holds the proteins and fats in the milk.


Important concepts:
Surfactant (bipolar) break down surface tension
Hydrophobic and hydrophilic (able to dissolve better in water) (polar and nonpolar) 
Soap splits fat molecules into tiny particles
 - those parts are so small, the water pushes it away